Physics & Astronomy 590
Spring 2022 Homepage
Univ. Louisville
Instructor: Dr.
Gerard Williger, NS 206, tel 852-0821
e-mail: gmwill06@*
where *= louisville.edu (please do not e-mail to my Groupwise acct)
My homepage is here
Office hours:
by appointment;
*I will not entertain questions on problem sets on the day they are
due*
Lectures: Tue/Thu
11am-12:15pm, Nat Sci 128 (CHANGED FROM THE FIRST LECTURE)
Text: Foundations of Astrophysics,
Ryden & Peterson, 1st ed., Addison-Wesley (2010)
The course objective is to learn basic the basic physics of
astronomical phenomena. A mastery of calculus
and introductory (calculus-based) college physics is assumed, plus
the material for Astronomy 307.
Differential equations will help, but if you
have not had them, you can pick up what you will need. The
lectures will begin on Tuesday, Jan. 11.
A password-enabled protected
site will contain answers to homework and midterm problems, if
I do not
pass them out in class. I may also put commentaries on common
homework errors there as well.
Finally, all the PowerPoint files for a recent Astro 107 class, plus
animation files,
are on the protected site. They're an excellent overview for
the material in this course, and I
highly recommend your looking at the files. We'll try to cover
roughly chapters 13-24 in our textbook.
GRAPHING CALCULATORS ARE BANNED ON TESTS.
UL
Student Support Page for the COVID-19
situation.
Here are
links for supplemental material and additional explanations
astro-news
for Astro 107 (see for solar plasma ejection article etc.)
Reading/Schedule:
11-13 Jan: Chap 13; + Astro-107 Ch11 slides
18-20 Jan: Chap 13-14
25-27 Jan: Chap 14-15 + Astro-107 Ch12 slides; Mini-Quiz (MQ)-1 27th
01-03 Feb: Chap15; no live class on 3rd (ice storm)
08-10 Feb: Chap 15-16; MQ-2 10th
15-17 Feb: Chap 16-17; Quiz-1 17th
22-24 Feb: Chap 17-18 + Astro-107 Ch13-14 slides; MQ-3 24th
01-03 Mar: Chap 18 + MIDTERM (covers Ch. 13-17)
08-10 Mar: Chap 18-19 + Astro-107 Ch15 slides
15-17 Mar: SPRING BREAK
22-24 Mar: Chap 20 + Astro-107 Ch16-17 slides; no MQ
29-31 Mar: Chap 21-22; MQ-4 31st
05-07 Apr: Chap 22; MQ-5 7th
12-14 Apr: Chap 23 + Astro-107 Ch18 slides; Quiz-2 14th (swapped with MQ-5 at class request)
19-21 Apr: Chap 24 + Astro-107 Ch19 slides; no MQ (cancelled)
Mon 25 Apr 4pm: review session in NS 130 (note room change!)
Thu 28 Apr 11:30-2:00pm: Cumulative FINAL EXAM
Presentations should be about 10 minutes talking, 2 minutes of
questions each, unless class agrees to longer
TIME/PLACE FOR PRESENTATIONS: Mon 2 May at 11:30am, place TBA
(possibly NS 312). Talks will be in person, COVID permitting.
CHAPTER TOPICS:
13 - magnitudes, stellar luminosities/sizes, binaries, radial
velocity/light curves
14 - stellar atmospheres, Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
15 - stellar interiors, equations of stellar structure
16 - interstellar medium, H II regions
17 - star formation, evolution of solar mass stars, Cepheids/RR
Lyrae stars
18 - white dwarfs, neutron stars, stellar mass black holes,
supernova remnants
19 - Galactic morphology, structure, rotation curve, nucleus
20 - galaxy classification, spectra, supermassive black holes,
Hubble-Lemaître law
21 - active galaxies, accretion disks, quasars, intergalactic medium
22 - galaxy clusters/superclusters, galaxy mergers
23 - cosmology (Newtonian and Einsteinian), spacetime metrics,
Friedmann equation
24 - accelerating Universe, cosmic microwave background, Big Bang,
consensus model
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS: Done on your own. You need to learn
them. I may call students to present
problems for extra participation credit.
COUNTS PROBLEMS -- TO BE TURNED IN: These are graded homework.
You can work together, but must turn in your
own, original solutions.
YOU
MUST SHOW YOUR WORK (INCLUDING ORIGINS OF ALL NUMBERS)
SO THAT I CAN
FOLLOW YOUR CALCULATIONS AND GIVE PARTIAL CREDIT.
PLEASE STAPLE ANY WRITTEN HOMEWORK! LOOSE PAGES MAY BE LOST.
HOMEWORK
ASSIGNMENTS
Challenge problems are for
practice and will be similar to some test problems. They are
not to be turned in. Ask for help if you need it to learn
how to do them.
CHALLENGE PROBLEMS
HW01, due Tue 18 Jan: 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4,
13.6, 13.9
HW02, due Tue 25 Jan: 13.7, 13.8, 13.10, 13.11 (Note: 13.9 was
assigned twice by accident)
HW03, due Tue 01 Feb: 14.1, 14.2 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, 14.7
HW04, due Tue 08 Feb: 15.3, 15.5, 15.6, 15.7, 15.8
HW05, due Tue 15 Feb: 15.1, 15.4, 15.9, 16.3, 16.7
HW06, due Tue 22 Feb: 16.2, 16.4, 16.6, 16.8, 16.9, 16.10
HW07, due Tue 01 Mar: 17.1, 17.2, 17.3, 17.4, 17.5, 17.6
HW08, due Tue 08 Mar: 18.1, 18.3, 18.7
HW09, due Tue 22 Mar: 18.2, 18.4, 18.5, 18.6, 18.8 (assume
gamma=1, use e- degenerate equation of state, M-R relation, assume
uniform density), 19.2
HW10, due Tue 29 Mar: 19.1, 19.3, 19.5, 19.6, 19.7, 20.7
HW11, due Tue 05 Apr: 20.1, 20.2, 20.8, 21.1, 21.2, ("6th pblm" is COUNTS-6)
HW12, due Tue 12 Apr: 21.3, 21.6 (use dv=5000 km/s), 21.7 (use redshift z=0.158), 21.9,
22.4 (use v~1500 km/s and a half-light radius of 1.5 Mpc), 22.5 (use star space density n=1/pc3 and look
up the radius of an M dwarf)
HW13, due Tue 19 Apr: 22.1, 22.6, 23.1, 23.2, 23.3, 23.4
HW14, due Mon 25 Apr at 4pm (time of review session): 24.1, 24.3, 24.4, 24.5
Midterm 3 Mar: 5 taken, mean = 22.4/50, std dev 10.3, max 34.5
COUNTS PROBLEMS/EXTRA CREDIT
Any paper
or seminar/talk write-ups should be typed, on paper. Please use TWELVE POINT
TYPE (not smaller).
Grammar/spelling/style count. CITE any outside sources you
use (papers, websites etc.)
Reading beyond the textbook and notes is encouraged! It's
good to learn how to look up information.
Keep a backup for yourself. Do about 300 words (1
page) unless otherwise noted. Definitions do NOT count
against the word total.
IN GENERAL for paper
summaries,
0) Look up and list any definitions you need to learn. If
you need help, ask.
i) your first sentence should be a punchy summary: "This
paper shows/discusses ..."
Then clearly identify at least these points:
ii) the main science question(s) or paper goal(s) in the
context of a brief background description e.g. "why is this
investigation being done"
iii) data source description (e.g. telescopes, surveys etc.
if it is an observational paper) or whether the paper is
theoretical; not needed for a review paper
iv) methods and error analysis (unless it's a review paper)
v) results, discussion/conclusions
vi) future work/implications
vii) whenever possible, be quantitative and specific, rather
than general and/or vague
viii) at the beginning of the paper, emphasize in one
sentence what is NEW and DIFFERENT in this paper compared to
other work in the field
IMPORTANT: Avoid copying phrases or sentences verbatim. Put
the material into your own words. Use plural with "data",
and singular with "datum". Do not use constructions like
"The article says", but
rather give the author's last name (if a single author
paper), the two authors' surnames
(if a two author paper) or the first author's last
name + "et al." for >=3 authors.
COUNTS 1: Summarize Jordi et al. 2010, A&A,
523, 48, "Gaia broad band photometry", on the class protected
site (Articles subdirectory).
It is long so just summarize parts of it: Sections 1-3; 6;
9. *Skip Sections 4-5, 7-8.* You can pick out what
you need
from the conclusions. You may wish to read up on Gaia
first, for example from Wikipedia.
This paper is long, so for this summary write a maximum of about
500-600 words (2 pages).
The goal is to learn about the various filter systems, so give
details about each and compare them.
Note that it is a data/tools paper, so it does not have the
traditional science question, data,
methods sections etc. Just summarize it and cover the main
points.
Due Monday 31 Jan, 2022 by noon (EXTENDED) via BlackBoard
upload.
COUNTS-2: Stellar
Spectra: Identify the spectral classes and subclasses on
the handout given on 8 Feb.
1) Identify the stars by spectral class and subclass. Do not
attempt to determine the luminosity class (I-V), as that is more
difficult (Almost all are V.)
2) Give all the identifying reasons you can (all spectral
indicators covered in class or whereever else you can find
them). Explain your reasoning fully. Include a labelled version
of the spectrum,
identifying as many lines as you can.
3) Give sources for any material you use beyond the book or
lecture.
4) Remember that you only have the optical portion of the
spectra.
5) Due on Fri 18 Feb at 3pm (EXTENDED)
6) Write up as a GROUP because this is a group assignment,
except for the one solo group.
Give justification
for your classifications, in terms of narrow lines, broad
lines, flux peak, slope, "raggedness" (in reality weak
lines), continuum flux at 3200-3500A relative to peak flux
or any other features you see. ANNOTATE each spectrum with
line identifications to be clear.
Common lines (in Angstroms) are:
TiO bands in the red (sometimes very broad), including 4584,
4626, 4761, 4810, 4847, 4954, 6650-6850 (v broad),
7050-7150, 8432, 8683A
H-alpha 6563
NaI doublet at 5896 (may not be resolved)
HeI 5876
HeII 5411
FeI 5270 (solar spectrum)
H-beta 4863
C2 4670 (broad, shallow; see Swan Bands)
HeI 4471
H-gamma 4342
CaI 4226
H-delta 4103
FeI 4045
CaII H,K doublet lines at 3935,3970
H-epsilon 3970 (calculate higher order lines yourself or
look them up, as needed - they sometimes are visible)
HeI 3965
MgI 3835
FeI 3730
Balmer break 3646
You can find more information at http://skyserver.sdss.org/dr1/en/proj/advanced/spectraltypes/lines.asp#spectab
You can find a GREAT online tool via the WKU
Astro 106 online spectral calculator
Another resource: Columbia
U solar spectral exercise (includes description of A-K
lines from 19th century)
Also, see the paper by Kesseli et al. (2017, ApJS, 230, 16)
on the class protected site under "Articles".
You are free to look up any other stellar spectral
catalogue, list of lines etc.
CITE YOUR REFERENCES.
COUNTS-3: Summarize
Levenhagen et al. 2017, ApJ Supp, 231, 1,
"A Grid of Synthetic Spectra for Hot DA White Dwarfs and Its
Application in Stellar Population Synthesis",
on the class protected site (Articles subdirectory).
This is a regular short paper, so write a summary of 400-500 words
(about 1-1.5 pages).
Note that it is a theory paper, so it does not have the traditional
data section.
Due on Fri. 11 Mar, 2022 by noon (EXTENDED) via BlackBoard upload.
SOME TERMS:
dissolved levels/level dissolution: There are "non-ideal" effects on
line profiles, which can include high electric microfields,
presumably under the extreme densities found in white dwarfs. The
microfields can affect the sharpness of boundaries between quantum
states if the fields fluctuate on long timescales. See Trembly &
Bergeron (2009), ApJ, 696, 1755. Do not worry about this effect. It
is far beyond the material in our course. IMF = initial mass
function
Inglis-Teller diagram = plot of electron density vs. highest
observable term in an electron transition series
isochrone = locus on the H-R diagram for stars of the same age but
different mass (and metallicity)
line satellite - a transition with a slightly different
energy/wavelength from a regular electron transition, caused by
radiative collisions. This can happen when the atom dipole moment
increases on short (internuclear) distances. See Allard et al.
(2009), A\&A, 506, 993. Ask Dr. Kielkopf about them, as he works
with Dr. Allard. Do not worry about this term/process, as it is far
beyond our course.
quasi-static: "a thermodynamic process that happens slowly enough
for the system to remain in internal physical (but not necessarily
chemical) thermodynamic equilibrium" (Wikipedia, downloaded
2022.03.27)
COUNTS-4: Write a one page "study sheet" for the Midterm (Ch. 13-17)
on
two sides of one piece of 8.5x11 inch paper. *Keep a copy for
yourself* or
give me a photocopy. I will grade it for thoroughness and
readability
(neatness, organization). Please indicate whether you would be
willing for me
to post it on the class protected site for others to view. There are
no quotas
for grades in this class, so students are not in competition with
each other.
I would like to see student collaboration for study. Use the study
sheet to
prepare for the midterm. (It is meant for preparation for the
midterm, but not for
use during the midterm.) Due on paper in class on Mar. 1. Worth up
to 1% on the
homework grade.
COUNTS-5: Summarize Zelati et al. (2021), ApJL, 907, L34,
"The New Magnetar SGR J1830-0645 in Outburst",
on the class protected site (Articles subdirectory).
This is a regular short paper, so write a summary of 400-500 words
(about 1-1.5 pages).
Note that it is an observational paper, so it does have the
traditional data section.
Due on Sat. 26 Mar, 2022 by noon (EXTENDED) via BlackBoard upload.
COUNTS-6: Radial Velocity Problem
Use the Python program Orbit3.py on the class protected site (under
the "Programs" subdirectory).
Download the Excel template there or use the copy on BlackBoard.
Vary each of the input parameters (top row of Excel file) and note
how the observable parameters
change (first column). In detail:
EXPLORE PARAMETER SPACE TO FIND OUT HOW RADIAL
VELOCITY VARIES WITH VARIOUS PARAMETERS.
TEST OUT A GRID OF VALUES FOR EACH PARAMETER.
VARY THE PARAMETERS ONE BY ONE, SYSTEMATICALLY FROM LOW TO HIGH
VALUES.
START WITH THE DEFAULT VALUES AND EXPLORE THE
POSSIBILITIES.
THEN, REPORT ON THE EFFECTS ON THE RADIAL VELOCITY CURVE.
Use 5 system parameters:
1) mass ratio (default: 1:1)
2) semi-major axis a (default: 1 AU)
3) eccentricity e (default: e=0)
4) inclination i (default: i=90 deg)
5) angle to line of apsides w (default: w=0)
Observe these characteristics of radial velocity curve, and
describe **how** they change WITH THE VARIATION OF EACH INPUT
PARAMETER.
a) How does the maximum radial velocity v_r vary
with your input parameters?
b) How does ratio of v_{r,1}/v_{r,2} vary with your input
parameters?
c) How does the period P vary with your input parameters?
d) What are the RELATIVE FWHM (to period) of maximum vs. minimum
v_r (as a function of time and as a fraction of total period) for
a given star? If you do not know the concept of FWHM well,
ask me.
e) Consider and describe the symmetry of v_r curve at maximum (for
v_r>0); then consider/describe separately the symmetry around
minimum v_r (for v_r<0) for a given star.
f) What is the time from v_{r,max} to v_{r,min} compared to the
time from v_{r,min} to v_{r,max} for a given star?
g) How does v_{r,max} change with respect to v_{r,min} for a given variable and given star?
How does each system parameter affect each observable? Some system
parameters will affect more observables than others.
Examine the radial velocity curves in a "grid", varying the
parameters
systematically. Put answers into the Excel file.
Be sure to test the elliptical case (e>0) as well as the
circular case (e=0) whenever you can!
Due: Thu Apr 7 (EXTENDED) at the beginning of class. This is an
individual assignment, as we discussed in class.
You can consult with each other on it as speaking with each other
may aid your learning.
However, write up your results separately, and include as much
detail as you can. You should include some
illustrative screenshots as you see appropriate to explain your
conclusions (bonus possible).
ASK QUESTIONS IF YOU NEED CLARIFICATION.
COUNTS-7: Summarize Chakrabarti et al. (2015), ApJL, 802, L4,
"Clustered Cepheid Variables 90 kpc from the Galactic Center",
on the class protected site (Articles subdirectory).
This is a regular short paper, so write a summary of 400-500 words
(about 1-1.5 pages).
Note that it is an observational paper, so it does have the
traditional data section.
Due on Fri. 15 Apr, 2022 by noon via BlackBoard upload.
COUNTS-8: Write a one page "study sheet" for the Final (Ch. 13-24) on
two sides of one piece of 8.5x11 inch paper. *Keep a copy for yourself* or
give me a photocopy. The final will have 5-6 questions on Ch. 18-24, and
2-3 questions on Ch. 13-17.
Due via BlackBoard upload by 4pm on Tue 26 Apr **EXTENDED**.
Worth up to 1% on your grade.
EXTRA CREDIT:
1) TBA
PRESENTATIONS:
Here are the rules.
0) Pick a paper you can understand *backward and forward*. If
there are terms, concepts, parameters etc. you do not understand,
I expect you to learn and explain them to the rest of the class (and
to me), in your write-up, slides and presentation.
If there are too many such terms/concepts/parameters for you to do
this, do not pick such a paper. It's MUCH better to do a
*great* job
on a simple paper than a so-so job (at best) on an extremely
complicated one.
1) topics+proposed papers due Thu 10 Mar (before Spring Break)
2) maximum 10 minutes+2 minutes questions, strictly enforced, SLIDES
DUE (POWERPOINT OR PDF) TBA
3) I recommend about 7-10 slides
4) explain a-the scientific question, b-background, c-the
methods/data, d-what is new (the discovery/result), e-the meaning
for the big picture/science and future work
5) Your audience is your classmates. They should understand what you
do. If they don't, you haven't done your job to explain it to them.
6) You're encouraged to get graphics from other articles, Wikipedia
etc. BUT CITE your sources!
7) FORBIDDEN topics: General relativity, anything related to GR
(such as complex calculations with neutron stars or black holes),
"strange" stars or other quantum mechanics not covered in class, or
any other subject which is not covered in our textbook. GR is
not a prerequisite
for our class, and most people have not (yet) taken it, though I
recommend it for future studies.
8) Use a REFEREED journal article, 4-6 pages maximum, on any subject
in Astro 307 or 590. The more recent, the better. Try to stay with
one published in the last 5-6 years, to keep technology and science
current for the class. You are encouraged to read other papers for
background material, and these can be longer, but your primary one
should be short. Review papers on anything (as they tend to be long
and not have a science question), general relativity, modified
gravity, quantum gravity and nuclear physics we haven't covered
(e.g. quarks) in particular are NOT allowed. The standard
journal search engine is
ADS.
I will introduce its use to you if you need it.
8) There is a STRICT upper size limit of 6 pages (4-5 pages
preferred) in any journal. No exceptions. Remember, these talks are
SHORT.
9) I recommend getting an article from the following. Try especially
the Letters from each journal.
Nature
Astrophysical Journal
Astrophysical Journal
Letters
Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society
Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society - Letters
Astronomical Journal
Astronomy & Astrophysics
(especially Letters)
Publications of
the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
Icarus (solar
system journal)
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of Japan
If you wish to present a paper summary from another journal, please
clear it in advance with G. Williger.
Other refereed journals are available via the NASA ADS
site, and
arXiv preprint server (look for PASJ
articles or other hard to find articles here) site.
10) WRITEUP:
You will also need to write an approximately 600 word/two
page summary of your paper, which is worth 1/3 of the
presentation grade (more than a regular paper summary):
a) science question
b) observations/data sample (if observational) or methods
(if theoretical)
c) results
d) conclusions
e) further work
This is due typed, on paper, when you make your
presentation. You may include background material from
other papers.
Cite liberally.
GOOD PRACTICE FOR SLIDES:
Use variable colors, fontsize, boldface, underlining,
italics etc. Avoid monotony. **MAKE FONT SIZE BIG for those in the back of the room.
No more than 1 slide per minute.
Each slide should have a title of one to a few words - keep
reminding the audience what's going on and guide step by
step.
Use background boxes, indentations, bullets etc. Avoid unbroken
blocks of text.
Use "telegraph language", minimizing words. Do not write
many complete sentences. Speak them instead.
Have at least one graphic per slide, even a small one.
A little humor can be helpful, but keep it restrained so it
does not dominate your message; use like salt and pepper in
a recipe.
Put references on the slides where they are used (just author and year). Do not make a slide for references.
Your LAST slide should be "conclusions and further work". It will start the discussion after your talk.
**Anticipate one to a few questions and have slides as "extra material" in case you need them.
WHEN TALKING:
Do not read your slides.
Modulate your voice pitch and speed. Speak with expression.
Do not be monotone. Do not speak too fast.
*MAKE EYE CONTACT WITH YOUR AUDIENCE FREQUENTLY.*
Avoid saying "um". It distracts your audience from your
message.
*PRACTICE* your talk so it's smooth. Have your
friends/classmates critique you.
Know your material very well and anticipate some potential
questions. Have a slide or two ready after the end of your
talk
in case someone asks the question you think will come under
"Extra Material".
Keep to your time limit (10 minutes). You should practice
your talk at least 3 times with it successfully within your
time limit.
Ideally, you should not need notes. But, use them if you
must.
SCHEDULED/APPROVED ARTICLES and order:
MW - Borysenko et al. (2022), Icarus, 372, 114752, "Some Physical Properties of a New Jupiter-Family Comet P/2019 LD2 (ATLAS) from Broadband Observations"
LP - Martin and Livio 2022, MNRAS, in press, arXiv:2106.03999,
"How much water was delivered from the asteroid to Earth after its
formation?"
ES - Kalteneggar and Pepper, 2020, MNRAS, 499, L111, "Which Stars can see Earth as a transiting exoplanet?"
JB - Rebassa-Mansergas et al. 2022, ApJ, 927, L31, "Gaia 0007-1605: An Old Triple System with an Inner Brown Dwarf-White Dwarf Binary ..."
JP - Miller et al. (2022), ApJ, 926, L24, "The Ultramassive White Dwarfs of the Alpha Persei Cluster"
Participation grades are subjective and are subject
to change. They result from
a combination of class participation (comments and
questions) plus performance at any problems done at the board in
class, or assisting other
students doing so. If you never say anything or skip class (which I can note in any way,
including not picking
up homework) then you can get as little as zero. I also am
less
likely to be generous with
participation if you habitually don't
turn in any written, assigned
homework, since doing homework generates questions
and feedback on common
misconceptions.
GRADING:
Grades are composed of
tests 75%: 1 cumulative final, 1 midterm, 2-4 quizzes; also 0-9
miniquizzes (1% each)
presentation 8%
homework + participation 17%
Details are on the syllabus.
The presentation will involve summarizing a paper from the
literature.
Partial
Credit:
Homework and tests will have
partial credit available. You MUST show
your work, in particular the
equations which are used to begin a
calculation, to get any credit at
all. You must keep track of significant
digits. If the least
accurate number going into a calculation has n
significant digits, then the
answer should have that number, also.
If you happen to do the wrong
homework problem instead of an assigned
one, you will typically not get
credit for it. Leaving a question
blank definitely earns a zero.
On homework, I also count it as a sign of lack of
participation.
Scientists
need
to check their own work. To this end,
you are expected to have an
idea what a reasonable answer is, even though
you might not get the
correct answer.
A
reasonable answer has the correct units -- use dimensional analysis!
It also has an order of
magnitude
which is not wildly
inconsistent with information given in the problem or common
knowledge. For
example, calculating a core temperature of the Sun to
be 3K is a nonsense
(unreasonable) answer, because its surface and even
Earth are much hotter than
that. If your answer is way off
and you
note it and attempt to explain where the problem might be,
I will take it into
consideration.
If
you give a nonsense answer due to simple arithmetic or
mathematical
errors and do not catch it,
you may not get partial credit for setting up the
problem correctly.
Here are also links (from
an Astronomy 107 links site) for recent
discoveries,
(simple) equations
used in that class
and supplemental
material.
Planned material to cover (subject to
modification; links for supplemental material are
provided):
orbital mechanics, Earth-Moon system, tides, nature of
light, telescopes/detectors, our solar system and others
We will begin stellar astrophysics if time permits.
Topics
covered:
stars, stellar structure,
interstellar medium, star formation, the Milky Way,
galaxies, cosmology
Additional
material from other chapters and books will be added as
needed.
If you miss a test and you give
me a week's
advance notice with a
documentable reason, the make-up may be an
oral exam. Missed quizzes
may be excused, with documentation, with their weight put on
the midterm or final exam.
General test policy is that
once you leave the room, you can't come back in.
You are permitted to help
each other in groups, but you must turn in your own work.
Grading will be done on a
curve.
There is no fixed
percentile for grades, nor any absolute standard for letter
grades. The plus-minus
grading system (A, A-, B+ etc.) will be used.